| Abstract Scope |
3D-printed fumarate-based polymer scaffolds, particularly poly(propylene fumarate) (PPF) and poly(caprolactone fumarate) (PCLF), have emerged as promising platforms for bone tissue engineering due to their tunable architecture, biodegradability, and mechanical strength. However, pristine scaffolds lack sufficient bioactivity to effectively promote bone regeneration. Our recent study demonstrates that surface functionalization with two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials, such as graphene oxide (GO) and black phosphorus nanosheets (BPNS), significantly enhances scaffold performance. GO improves protein adsorption and cell adhesion, while BPNS enables sustained phosphate release, stimulating osteogenic differentiation and mineralization. Furthermore, incorporation of immunomodulatory cytokines, such as interleukin-4 (IL-4), promotes macrophage polarization toward a pro-healing M2 phenotype, creating a favorable osteoimmune microenvironment. These synergistic strategies enhance stem cell proliferation, angiogenesis, and in vivo bone formation. Overall, functionalized 3D-printed fumarate scaffolds represent a versatile and effective approach for advancing bone regeneration and clinical translation. |