| Abstract Scope |
Red mud, a highly alkaline byproduct of the Bayer process, is produced at a rate of 1–1.5 tons per ton of alumina, making it one of the world’s largest industrial waste streams. This iron-rich residue contains valuable metals including aluminum, iron, titanium, and trace rare earth elements (REEs), notably scandium, which can exceed $4,000/kg as Sc₂O₃. However, extracting these elements remains challenging due to complex mineralogy and environmental constraints. This study presents a framework for red mud valorization through advanced mineralogical and spectroscopic characterization, focusing on the elemental distribution and host phases of REEs, Ti, and Ga. Special attention is given to scandium's association with iron and titanium phases. We discuss circular recovery strategies that integrate waste remediation with resource extraction, highlighting co-recovery pathways for Fe, Ti, Ga, and REEs. These findings support red mud’s transformation from an environmental burden into a sustainable source of critical minerals. |